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Startseite - GBT Forum - Kältemittel CO2
 

Kältemittel CO2

Text Datum Benutzer
Kältemittel CO2
Wer hat Erfahrung mit CO2 als Kaeltemittel? Kann uns jemand auf diesem Gebiet weiterhelfen, insbesondere interessieren uns erfarungswerte, Hersteller, Forschungsarbeiten resp.Resultate etc. Vielen Dank.
12 Dec 2004
19:45:57
Ozoni
Kältemittel CO2

Im Anhang Info zum Thema Kältemittel/CO2 Gruss H.Hertz


Use of non-HFC technology

Submitting organization Joint Expert Submission. This submission is supported by a large number of organisations, which include National Governments, Non-Governmental Organisations, Academics and industry. A full list is detailed in the field titled ‘ Other remarks’. Paul Blacklock Calor Gas Ltd Athena Drive, Tachbrook Park CV34 6RL Warwick Warks United Kingdom Tel. + 44 1926 330088 Fax. + 44 1926 318718 E-mail: pblacklo@calorgas.co.uk http://www.care-refrigerants.co.uk/

Date of submission 15th July 1999

Type Technology, substitution Category Refrigeration & Air Conditioning, All Gases affected (reduced, recovered, destroyed, replaced, avoided) All HFCs General description Non-HFC technologies are available for all refrigeration and air-conditioning (RAC) sectors. Non-fluorinated refrigerants and Not-in-Kind (NIK) technologies are already commercially available. Others are under development1. The most common non-fluorinated refrigerants used are ammonia, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide (CO2), water and air. NIK technologies include absorption, desiccant, evaporative cooling, Stirling cycle19 and thermoelectric.

Impacts on ozone depletion None. All the technologies have been selected on the basis that the substances involved do not cause ozone depletion. Impacts on global warming HFC emissions during their manufacture, distribution, storage and during the total lifetime of RAC equipment can only be completely eliminated by not using HFCs in the first place. HFCs are powerful global warming gases with global warming potentials (GWPs) typically thousands of times higher than non-fluorocarbon alternatives2. The non-HFC technologies identified above have either zero or negligible GWPs. This is important as most of the damage from HFCs arises through their leakage and venting during the lifetime of RAC equipment. In 1996 some 80% of HFCs were used for topping up leaking systems3.

HFC Leakage Rates Historical halocarbon annual leakage rates were high as 25% for distributed systems (e.g. supermarkets, cold stores etc), refrigerated transport and mobile a/c, and 10% for central chillers9 in 1995. These high leakage rates are due to the fact that the containment of fluorocarbon refrigerants has traditionally been a low priority during equipment design, manufacture, installation, use and disposal. There has of course also been a strong commercial incentive, particularly amongst the fluid suppliers and maintenance contractors, for systems to leak.

These attitudes are spread widely within the RAC industry. This was evidenced by the poor response that the UK Government received to its voluntary agreement with the UK RAC industry to limit HFC emissions. Of the more than 7000 companies in the UK industry only around 200 (less than 3%) have formally signed up to the agreement4.

The average loss of charge on the disposal of RAC equipment has also been traditionally high - despite the existence in many countries of mandatory recovery and recycling schemes. Disposal losses have been typically 75% for distributed systems, 25% for central chillers and 100% for refrigerated transport and mobile a/c5.

Control through public policy is made all the more difficult by the sheer number of systems involved (over 1 billion) and the fact that the vast majority of systems are sited in private premises far away from law enforcement authorities.

Impacts from HFC Manufacture HFCs also have a global warming impact arising from their manufacture6. This is as a result of fugitive emissions from the manufacturing process and due to the energy consumed during manufacturing. This compares unfavourably with the non-HFC alternatives. For example, the total process related CO2 arising from the manufacture of HFC134a is more than 160 times greater than that required to manufacture isobutane7.

Energy Efficiency The issue of energy efficiency is of crucial importance in relation to the indirect global warming impact from CO2 emissions arising during energy production. Using a non-HFC substance or technology may have an important influence on energy usage. In some cases the effect can be beneficial. However, in other situations there is an energy penalty, which can actually lead to an increase in CO2 emissions that outweigh the benefits of reduced HFC emissions. These effects are strongly application and design dependent and must be carefully taken into account when considering HFC emission reduction strategies. This is a topic of intense discussion as there is no general rule because refrigerants and refrigeration technologies can behave differently in different systems under different conditions. However, numerous research work has illustrated that non-HFC technologies can provide more efficient refrigeration cycles than those using HFCs.

NOTE: See "ADDITIONAL REFERENCES" below.

Emission Forecasts. It is extremely difficult to forecast the future emissions of HFCs. This is because any forecast is dependent upon a number of factors. These include the future volumes of HFCs in the market, leakage rates, recovery rates and the take up of non-HFC technologies. These will vary from country to country. These variables mean that there are already substantial variations in the forecasts for future HFC emissions - even when they are based upon the same data. For example, current estimates for UK HFC emissions vary from >1% to 4%8,9 of total UK greenhouse gas emissions.

It should be noted that it is impossible to achieve zero leakage with any refrigerant in any kind of equipment.

Other environmental impacts (e.g. toxicity, flammability or other air emissions) HFCs - other impacts HFCs may be a source of acid rain. HFC degradation can include hydrofluoric acid and trifluoroacetate (TFA) which could threaten seasonal wetlands in urban areas. HFC production can leak toxic chemicals. The manufacture of HFCs releases vinyl chloride, ethylene dichloride (both carcinogens), other chlorinated organics, HFCs and HCFCs into the atmosphere. Liquid traces include heavy chlorinated residues likely to contain traces of dioxins as well as chromium in catalyst wastes6.

In addition, HFCs have been shown to have toxic effects on refrigeration technicians whilst handling these refrigerants, leading to skin and stomach disorders and other effects such as headaches and dizziness16. Within a fire situation, HFCs produce poisonous, toxic and corrosive substances when burned17.

HCs as Volatile Organic Compounds The issue of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) is often raised in respect of the use of hydrocarbon aerosol propellants and there have been attempts to extend this to the use of hydrocarbons as refrigerants. However, it is already recognised that the VOC issue is very limited in respect of its impact on the use of hydrocarbons - even in 100% emissive applications such as aerosols10.

It has been calculated that if the entire UK refrigerant bank converted to hydrocarbons this would equate to approximately 10,000 tonnes. Even if this were then to leak at current leak rates this would equate to only 0.09% of all UK manmade VOC emissions.

Refrigerant Flammability and toxicity It is widely known and recognised that hydrocarbons are flammable. Ammonia is less flammable, but is toxic. However, these safety issues have already been addressed in a number of international and national standards. It should be remembered that society already makes wide and safe use of such flammable substances as petrol, natural gas, LPG, paraffin and diesel. Ammonia has been used safely as a refrigerant for more then 100 years.

CO2 is neither flammable nor toxic and can then thereby serve as a good alternative in applications where this is beneficial.

Economic impacts (cost) The economic impacts which arise from the use of non-HFC technology will vary widely and depend upon a number of factors which will be country/region specific and would include the following: Type of equipment Application Availability of technical support Commercial availability of alternatives Safety requirements Legal environment Life costs - this includes the cost of energy, capital, maintenance and disposal. Training has not been included in this list as there will be an equal requirement to train - whether to use ammonia/hydrocarbons safely or HFCs responsibly. Training to achieve and maintain a high system performance during operation will be the same for all refrigerants.

It is only once all these factors have been taken into account that the economic impacts can be properly calculated and the UNFCCC is counselled against accepting any 'rule of thumb' measures or sweeping generalisations. It is a simple fact that in some cases the use of HFC alternatives will reduce costs and in other circumstances costs will increase.

One positive benefit of switching to non-HFC solutions now is that it will avoid the costs involved with any possible HFC phase-outs in the future. Some countries have already proposed a phase-out of HFCs and this is against a background where much of the RAC industry is still using vast quantities of CFCs and HCFCs. It will obviously be more economically prudent for these users of CFCs and HCFCs to switch straight into non-HFC solutions. This will completely avoid the need for any possible costly conversions in the future should end users decide to go down the HFC route. This issue is particularly pertinent in Article 5 countries that are in the process of phasing out CFCs and HCFCs.

Economic Instruments It is already widely recognised that there is a role for economic instruments to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases such as HFCs. Many countries are either applying or proposing specific energy taxes per given quantity of carbon or energy, applied in the form of downstream taxes on end users.

This is certainly a model that could be followed in order to encourage a shift to more environmentally benign non-HFC technologies such as ammonia, hydrocarbons and CO2. Denmark has been in the forefront of this and has already proposed a tax relating to the consumption of refrigerants and weighted according to their respective global warming potentials11. For example: Refrigerant GWP Tax (Dkr/kg) CO2 1 1.1 Dkr HFC 404A 3748 375 Dkr HFC134a 1300 130 Dkr HFC 407C 1610 161 Dkr HFC 410A 1890 189 Dkr HC 290 11 1.1Dkr NB US$1 = 7.25 Dkr

Since refrigerants are sold for thousands of US dollars per tonne any tax has to be of an appropriate order of magnitude if it is to have an effective influence on buying behaviour.

Such an economic instrument would encourage all of the main technical opportunities that are available to reduce HFC emissions. These being (a) Use a zero/low GWP non-fluorinated refrigerant (b) Use NIK technology (c) Reduce emissions throughout the life cycle of the product.

A tax based on the GWP of refrigerants has the following benefits:

It is simpler and less bureaucratic to implement and administer than any leakage monitoring system. It would give strong signals to business considering investments in RAC equipment. It would provide revenue streams that could be used to support proper reclaim and recycling schemes and incentives for investments in non-HFC technology. An HFC tax would certainly encourage a controlled and phased transition to non-HFC refrigerants. It would also ensure that the use of HFCs is restricted to those non-RAC applications where there are currently no alternatives commercially available.

Timing issues Non-HFC RAC technologies such as ammonia, hydrocarbons and absorption are already well proven and are commercially available. Components for CO2 technology are becoming available at the moment and commercial systems are expected to be available by 2000.

The main aspect to be considered in respect of timing is that the longer that any substantive action to control the use of HFCs is delayed the greater the cost of any future compliance.

Examples of application Non-HFC RAC technologies have now been applied or developed for all RAC applications. This has been confirmed in a wide number of articles, papers and Government reports1, 5, 9, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 21, 22. NOTE: See "ADDITIONAL REFERENCES" below. Regional availability or applicability Non-HFC RAC technology is being used across all continents in a wide variety of applications, climates, environments and economies14. Other remarks This Expert Submission is supported by the following organisations and individuals: ACP Consult Klovervangen 60 8541 Skodstrup Denmark alex@pachai.com (Alexander Cohr Pachai)

Association for Environmentally Conscious Builders Nant-y-Garreg Farm Saron Llandyssul Dyfed UK Admin@aecb.net (Keith Hall)

Bonus Energi AB PO Box 32 S-370 10 Brakne-Hoby Sweden tony@bonusenergi.se (Tony Andersson).

Boral Refrigerants, Esanty Australia Dominic.drenen@esanty.com.au (Dominic Drenen)

David Butler Principal Project Engineer Environmental & Fire Dynamics Centre Building Research Establishment Garston Watford WD2 7JR UK Butlerd@bre.co.uk

Professor Donald Cleland Massey University Private Bag 11-222 Palmerston North New Zealand d.cleland@massey.ac.nz

Cool Concerns 18 Newbury Lane Compton Berks RG20 6PB UK Janeg@coolconcerns.co.uk (Jane Gartshore)

Danish Technological Institute Teknologiparken DK-8000 Arhus C Denmark Michael.kauffeld@teknologisk.dk (Dr Michael Kauffeld)

Delft University of Technology Laboratory for Refrigerating Engineering Mekelweg 2 NKL 2628 CD Delft The Netherlands c.h.m.machielsen@wbmt.tudelft.nl (Assoc. Prof. Cees H.M. Machielsen)

De' Longhi S.p.A. 31100 Treviso Italy (S. Zanolin) (Fax - + 39 0422 413654)

Earthcare Products Conbar House Mead Lane Hertford SG13 7AP UK Nickcox@dial.pipex.com (Nicholas Cox)

Ecozone Ltd Network of Climate Safe Cooling The Netherlands ecozone@antenna.nl (E.F.S. Dijkstra, MSc)

Elgas Limited PO Box 818 Milsons Point NSW 2061 Australia kevin.sansome@elgas.com.au (Kevin Sansome)

European Business Council for a Sustainable Energy Future (e5) Stalen Enk 45 NL - 6881 BN Velp The Netherlands Pemetz@worldonline.nl (Paul Metz)

Friends of the Earth 1025 Vermont Ave., NW Washington, DC 20005 USA JVallette@foe.org (Jessica Vallette)

Global Cooling b.v. P.O. Box 4202, NL-7200 BE Zutphen, The Netherlands info@globalcooling.nl (Geert Klok)

Hopkins Catering Equipment 151 Kent Road Pudsey Leeds LS28 9NF UK Chris@hopkins-catering.co.uk (Chris Hopkins)

INFRAS Gerechigkeitsgasse 20 CH-8002 Zurich Switzerland oschwank@infras.ch (Dr O. Schwank)

International Secondary Refrigerants Association (ISRA) PO Box 1015 3180 AA Rozenburg The Netherlands Nina.liem@kemira.com (Secretary: Ms S.L.N. Liem)

Kemira Chemicals PO Box 1015 3180 AA Rozenburg The Netherlands Nina.liem@kemira.com (Nina Liem)

Yasuko Matsumoto Associate Professor Suwa Junior College Science University of Tokyo 5000-1 Toyohira, Chino-City Nagano Prefecture, Japan 391-0292 yasuko@sk.suwa.sut.ac.jp

NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology N-7491Trondheim Norway Petter.neksa@energy.sintef.no (Petter Neksa)

SHV Energy India T-220, J/1, Savitri Nagar Nr Malviya Nagar New Delhi 110 107 India Supergas@del3.vsnl.net.in (J. Bhatia)

SINTEF Energy Research N-7465 Trondheim Norway trude.tokle@energy.sintef.no (Trude Tokle)

The Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research TNO, Department of Refrigeration and Heat Pump Technology Laan van Westenenk 501 PO Box 342 7300 AH Apeldoorn The Netherlands r.j.m.vangerwen@mep.tno.nl (R.J.M. van Gerwen M.Sc.)

University College London Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Gower St London WC1E 6BT K_suen@meng.ucl.ac.uk (Dr William Suen)

University of New South Wales School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Sydney NSW Australia 2052 Ian@ilm.mech.unsw.edu.au (Prof I. Maclaine-cross)

Northern Ireland Centre for Energy Research & Technology University of Ulster Coleraine, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland, BT52 1SA United Kingdom Nj.hewitt@ulst.ac.uk (Dr Neil J Hewitt)

University of Warwick School of Engineering Coventry CV4 7AL UK Esrec@eng.warwick.ac.uk (Dr B. Critoph)

Sources of additional information (what and where) TEXT REFERENCES 1. Colbourne, D., Blacklock, P. 'Limiting HFC emissions through the use of non-HFC technologies.' Proc. IPCC/TEAP Joint Expert Meeting, Petten May 1999 2. IPCC Second Assessment Report. 1996 3. Building Services Research and Information Association. 'UK & European Market for Refrigerants.' Status Report 121471/1. Sept 1998. 4. Environmental Data Services. Issue No 252 pp31-32. January 1996. 5. UK Department for the Environment, Transport and the Regions. 'Proposed New Controls on CFCs, HCFCs,1,1,1-Trichloroethane and Carbon Tetrachloride, UK Costs and Compliance Study. Sept 1998. 6. Banks, R.E., Sharratt, P.N. ' Environmental Impacts of the Manufacture of HFC134a.' UMIST November 1996. 7. McCulloch, A., Campbell, N.J. 'The climate change implications of producing refrigerants.' Proc. IIR Conf. Natural Working Fluids '98.Oslo 8. Johnson, E. 'Global Warming from HFC.' Environmental Impact Assessment Review. November 1998. 9. March Consulting. 'UK Emissions of HFCs, PFCs and SF6 and Potential Emission Reduction Options.' 1999. 10. Campbell, N. ' Technical, Pesticide, Cosmetic, Convenience and Novelty Aerosol Products. Proc. IPCC/TEAP Joint Expert Meeting, Petten May 1999 11. Lindegaard, E. Speech to IIR Natural Working Fluids Conference. Aarhus 1996 12. Pedersen, P.H. 'Ways of Reducing Consumption and emission of potent greenhouse gases (HFCs, PFCs and SF6). Project for the Nordic Council of Ministers. DTI Energy December 1998. 13. Powell, L., Blacklock, P. 'Experience of using Hydrocarbons in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications in Europe. Proc. AIRAH Conf. Sydney April 1997. 14. Greenpeace video. ' Cool Technologies - working without HFCs.' Shown at the UNFCCC/TEAP Conference. Petten May 1999. 15. Website of Calor Gas Refrigeration. www.care-refrigerants.co.uk 16. Hansen, B., "Arbejdsmilio, olier og kolemidler", Dansk Koledag, 1998. 17. Anon, "Beware! Decomposing Refrigerants", Industrial Fire World, USA, Nov/Dec 1997. 18. Nyvad, J., Lund, S. ' Indirect cooling with ammonia in supermarkets.' IIR Conf. Applications for Natural Refrigerants '96. 19. Berchowitz, D.M. ' Maximised Performance of Stirling-Cycle refrigerators.' Proc. Conf IIR Natural Working Fluids Oslo. 1998 20. Stene, J., 1998: "Compression Systems with Natural Working Fluids - Results and Conclusions from IEA Annex 22 (1995-1998)", Natural Working Fluids '98, IIR - Gustav Lorentzen Conference, Oslo, Norway, IIR, p. 129-137. 21. Nekså, P., S. Girotto, et al., 1998: "Commercial Refrigeration Using CO2 as Refrigerant - System Design and Experimental Results", Natural Working Fluids '98, IIR - Gustav Lorentzen Conference, Oslo, Norway, IIR, p. 227-236. 22. Nekså, P. , 1999: "CO2 Heat Pump Systems", Heat Pumps - a Benefit for the Environment. 6th International Energy Agency Heat Pump Conference, Berlin Germany, May 31 - June 2, 1999.

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Link to additional information www.care-refrigerants.co.uk http://www.infras.ch http://www.mep.tno.nl http://www.bre.co.uk/bre/indoorenv/cool/index.htm http://www.ecozone.nl

12 Dec 2004
19:47:20
H.Hertz
Kältemittel CO2 Stoffeigenschaften Anwendung

Hallo, Im Anhang Kältemittel CO2, Stoffeigenschaften und Anwendung! Viel Erfolg Luchs

19. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Uwe Sievers, Anlagenbau, Technische Thermodynamik Tel. (040) 2488 3014 * Fax (040) 2488 2658 e-mail: sievers@rzbt.fh-hamburg.de


Berechnung thermodynamischer Stoffeigenschaften von Kältemitteln und Prozeßfluiden und deren Anwendung zur industriellen Energieeinsparung und Prozeßoptimierung KURZPORTRAIT: Für die Planung, die Auslegung und den Betrieb von Anlagen der thermischen Verfahrenstechnik und der Energietechnik werden u.a. die thermodynamischen Eigenschaften von reinen Stoffen und Gemischen in weiten Bereichen des Gas- und des Flüssigkeitsgebietes einschließlich der Dampf-Flüssigkeits-Gleichgewichte benötigt. Die in den Anlagen ablaufenden Prozesse können aus thermodynamischer Sicht nur optimiert werden, wenn die Stoffeigenschaften der am Prozeß beteiligten Stoffe vorliegen. Die genaue Kenntnis der Eigenschaften dieser Stoffe ermöglicht es somit, Rohstoffe, Energie, Investions- und Betriebskosten einzusparen und außerdem die Belastung der Umwelt zu reduzieren.

Tabellen der thermodynamischen Eigenschaften von CO2 sind 1984 veröffentlicht worden (1). Inzwischen sind neue, hochgenaue Meßwerte der thermodynamischen Eigenschaften dieses Fluids bekannt geworden. Unter Verwendung ausgewählter Meßwerte werden die Koeffizienten der Bender-Gleichung neu bestimmt. Die thermische Zustandsgleichung mit den neuen Koeffizienten beschreibt das gesamte fluide Zustandsgebiet bis zu Drücken von 100 MPa mit hoher Genauigkeit.

Einsatzmöglichkeiten des natürlichen Kältemittels CO2 in Kältemaschinen und Wärmepumpen werden durch umfangreiche Berechnungen für Kaltdampfkompressionskältemaschinenprozesse untersucht (2). Für Verdampfertemperaturen zwischen -50 C und +10 C werden die Leistungszahl, der exergetische Wirkungsgrad, die erforderliche spezifische technische Arbeit des Kältemittelverdichters sowie der abgegebene, auf den Massenstrom des Kältemittels bezogene Wärmestrom ermittelt. Die systematische Analyse der Ergebnisse zeigt, in welchen Bereichen der industrielle Einsatz des Kältemittels CO2 Vorteile bietet gegenüber Ammoniak oder halogenierten Kohlenwasserstoffen, wie z.B. R22 und R134a. Außerdem werden die früher in den Kältemaschinenregeln zur Auslegung von Kältemaschinen mit dem Kältemittel CO2 aufgeführten Tabellen unter Verwendung genauerer Zustandsgrößen neu bestimmt. Für Auslegung und Projektierung von Wärmepumpen und Kältemaschine mit dem natürlichen Kältemittel CO2 benötigte Unterlagen werden zusammengestellt und Hinweise zu optimalen Betriebsbedingungen für verschiedene Anwedungsfälle gegeben.

Besondere Vorteile bieten Wärmepumpen, die im transkritischen Prozeß betrieben werden. Ihre Einbindung in eine Hochdruckextraktionsanlage mit Extraktabscheidung bei unterkritischem Druck wird eingehend untersucht. Da in Hochdruckextraktionsanlagen eine Extraktabscheidung auch bei überkritischem Druck erfolgen kann, werden zum Vergleich hierfür ebenfalls energetisch günstige Prozeßführungen ermittelt.
12 Dec 2004
19:48:50
O. Luchs

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